London 1650 [first publication]
Transcription R.A.Barker, 1987, 2002
Modernised text © R A Barker, 2002
Sir Walter Rawleigh
EXCELLENT OBSERVATIONS AND NOTES, CONCERNING THE ROYALL NAVY AND SEA-SERVICE.
Dedicated to Prince Henry.
Having formerly (most excellent Prince) discoursed of a maritimal voyage, and the passages and incidents in that, I think it not impertinent nor differing from my purpose, to second the same, with some necessary relations concerning the Royal Navy, with the Services and Offices belonging to them. For, as the perfection and excellency of our shipping is great and remarkable, so the imperfections and defects of the same by use and experience of late years, have been found to be diverse and inconvenient, as it falls out many times in the circumstances of land service by the change of arms, diversities of fortifications, and altering of discipline. And therefore for the due reformation, many things are necessarily and particularly to be spoken and considered of in their order. In regard to which, I will first begin with the Officers, and crave pardon for this (if in speaking plainly and truly in a matter of so great importance) I do set aside all private respects and partiality. For in that which concerns the service and benefit of my Prince and country, I will say with Cicero, nil mihi melius, nil mihi charius [nothing is better or dearer to me] and am therefore not to be justly taxed with any presumption for meddling with matters in which I have no dealings nor charge. Because in the affairs of this nature, every good subject is deeply interested, and bound in conscience and duty both to say and do his best.
Of the Officers of the Navy.
First therefore, it were to be wished, that the Chief Officers under the Lord Admiral (as Vice-Admiral, Treasurer, Controller, Surveyor; and the rest) should be men of the best experience in Sea-service, as well as of judgement and practise in the utensils and necessaries belonging to shipping, even from the butts end to the very keelson of a ship. And that no kind of people should be preferred to any of these offices, but such as have been thoroughly practised, and be very judicial in either kind of the above named services; but we see it often times to fall out otherwise. For sometimes by the special favour of Princes, and many times by the mediation of great men for the preferment of their servants, and now and then by virtue of the purse, and such like means, some people very raw and ignorant, are very unworthily and unfitly nominated to those places, when deserving men of ability are held back and unpreferred, to the great hindrance of his Majesty's service, to the prejudice of the Navy, and to the no little discouragment of ancient and noble able servants, when favour or partiality shall override knowledge and sufficiency, in matters so closely concerning the service and safety of the Kingdom, in which all private respects should be laid apart, and virtue truly regarded for itself.
Of the building of ships.
Secondly it were no less fitting for his Majesty's service, and for the strength of the Navy, that no ships should be built by the great, as various of them have been; for by daily experience they are found to be the most weak, imperfect, and unserviceable ships of all the rest. And it is not otherwise to be presumed, but as the Officers would be thought to be very frugal for his Majesty in driving a bargain by the great at a near [low] rate with the shipwright, so likewise the shipwright on his part, will be as careful to gain by his labour, or at least to save himself harmless, and therefore suit his work slightly according to a slight price. Out of which present sparing and untimely thrift there grow many future inconveniences and continual charge in repairing and rebuilding such imperfect slight built vessels. The proof and experience of which has often been found in new ships built at those rates, but so weakly, as that in their first voyages, they have been ready to founder in the seas with every extraordinary storm, and at their return have been enforced to be new built. But seeing the Officers of the Admiralty do hold (by the grace of his Majesty) places of such good credit and benefit, it is their parts therefore (being well waged and rewarded for the same) exactly to look into the sound building of ships, and to employ their care and travail as well in the oversight of that, as to provide that all things else belonging to the Navy be good and well conditioned. For the strong and true building of a ship is not to be left barely to the fidelity of a merchant artificer (the chief end of whose work in his own account is his profit and gain) but some superior officer ought to have a further regard in that business if he be such a one as has more judgement in the building and conditioning of a ship, than devotion to his own ease and profit.
Moreover if any decayed ship be intended to be new made, it is more fit and profitable to make her a size less then she was, than bigger; for then her beams which were laid athwart from side to side, will serve again, and most of her timbers and other parts will serve well for the building of a new ship. But if she should be made a size bigger, the timber of the old will be unprofitable for that purpose. We find by experience, that the greatest ships are least serviceable, go very deep into the water and are of marvellous charge and feareful cumber, our channels decaying every year. Besides, they are less nimble, less maineable [manageable], and very seldom employed. Grande navio grande fatica says the Spaniard [great ship, great labour]. A ship of 600 tons will carry as good ordnance as a ship of 1,200 tons, and though the greater have double her number, the lesser will turn her broadsides twice, before the greater can turn once, and so there is no advantage in that overplus of ordnance. And in the building of all ships, these six things are principally required:
1. First that she be strong built,
2. Secondly, that she be swift.
3. Thirdly, that she be stout sided.
4. Fourthly, that she carry her guns outboard in all weathers.
5. Fifthly, that she hull and try well, which we call a good sea-ship.
6. Sixthly, that she stay well, when boarding and turning on a wind is required.
1. To make her strong consists in the truth of the workman, and the care of the Officers.
2. To make her sail well is to give a long run forward, and so aftward, done by art and just proportion. For as in the laying out of her bows before, and quarter behind, she neither sink into, nor hang in the water, but lies clear off and above it. And that the shipwrights be not deceived in this (as for the most part they have ever been) they must be sure that the ship sink no deeper into the water than they promise, for otherwise the bow and quarter will utterly spoil her sailing.
3. That she be stout, the same is provided and performed by a long bearing floor, and by shearing off above water, even from the lower edge of the ports.
4. To carry her ordnance outboard in all weathers, this long bearing floor, and shearing off from above the ports is a chief cause, provided always, that your lowest tier of ordnance must lie four feet clear above water when all loading is in, or else your best lower-tier pieces will be of small use at sea in any grown weather that makes the billow to rise, for then you shall be enforced to take in all your [guns from your] lower ports, or else hazard the ship. As befell the Mary Rose ( a goodly vessel) which in the days of King Henry VIII being before the Isle of Wight with the rest of the Royal Navy, to encounter the French fleet, with a sudden puff of wind stooped her side and took in water at her ports in such abundance, so that she instantly sank downright and many gallant men in her. [Also referred to in Invention of shipping.] The Captain of her was Sir George Carew, Knight, who also perished among the rest.
5. To make her a good sea-ship, that is to hull and try well, there are two things to be observed specially: the one that she have a good draught of water; the other that she be not overcharged, which the Kings ships commonly are, and therefore in them we are forced to lie at try with our main course and mizzen, which with a deep keel and standing strake she will perform.
6. The hindrance to staying well is extreme length of a ship, especially if she be floaty and lacks sharpness of way forward, and it is most true, that those over long ships are fitter for our seas, than for the ocean, but one hundred feet long and five and thirty feet broad, is a good proportion for a great ship.
It is a special observation that all ships that are sharp before, that lack a long floor, will fall roughly into the sea and take in water over head and ears.
So will all narrow quartered ships sink after the tail. It is the high charging of ships that brings them all ill qualities, makes them extremely leeward, makes them sink deep into the water, makes them labour and makes them overset.
Men may not expect the ease of many cabins and safety at once in sea-service. Two decks and a half is sufficient to yield shelter and lodging for men and mariners, and no more charging at all higher, but only one low cabin for the Master. But our mariners will say, that a ship will bear more charging aloft for cabins, and that is true, if none but ordinary mariners were to serve in them, who are able to endure, and are used to the tumbling and rolling of ships from side to side when the sea is but only a little grown. But men of better sort and better breeding would be glad to find more steadiness and less tottering cage work. And albeit the mariners do covet a store of cabins, yet indeed they are but sluttish dens that breed sickness in peace, serving to cover stealths, and in fight are dangerous to tear men with their splinters.
Of harbouring and placing the Navy
There are also many and great reasons why all his Majesty's Navy should not in such sort be penned up as they are in Rochester Water. This is only in respect of the ease and convenience of the Officers, which is encountered with sundry inconveniences for the Sea-service, there being very great difficulty in bringing them in or out at times of need through so many flats and sands, if wind and weather are not very favourable. Besides, they must have several winds to bring them to Lands End, and to put them to the Seas, which often times fail, and causes delay when haste is most needful. For if any service is to be done upon the South parts of England, as the Isle of Wight, Portsmouth, the Islands of Guernsey and Jersey, or Westward towards Devonshire or Cornwall, or towards Wales or Ireland, it is so long before his Majesty's shipping can be brought round to reach any of these places, that much mischief may be done in the meanwhile. For the same winds that bring in the enemy, bind in our shipping in such a way, that often in a month's space they are not able to reach the nearest of any of these above named coasts. But how perilous a course it is, is easily discerned, and as easily remedied, seeing that there are besides so many safe and good harbours to disperse and bestow some of the Navy in; where they may ever lie fit for all services, such as Portsmouth; Dartmouth, Plymouth, Falmouth, Milford and various others, all of them being harbours very capable and convenient for shipping. But perhaps it will be alleged, that they cannot ride in any of these so safe from enemies as in Rochester Water, because it reaches far within the land, and is under the protection of some blockhouses. To which I answer this, that with very easy care and provision, they may in most of these places ride sufficiently secure from any foreign practices. And I do not mean that all the whole Navy should be subdivided into all these Ports, but that some half a dozen or eight of the middling ships, and some pinnaces should lie in the West; and yet not in any port so near the sea, as that in a dark night they may be endangered by enemies with fire or otherwise, but in some such places as Ashwater, by Plymouth, where an enemy must run up a fresh river, a dozen miles after he hath passed the Forts of the Island, and the alarm given, before he can come where they lie at anchor. In which river the greatest carrack of Portugal may ride afloat ten miles within the Forts [probably in one of the deeps in the Tamar, though none are now named Ashwater on the charts]. But if regard only be had for their safe keeping, and not also of their readiness and fitness for service, then let them never be sent abroad to be hazarded against the enemy's forces; for in that they shall be more subject to casualty and danger, than by lying in any of these harbours above specified. But certain it is, that these ships are intended to serve his Majesty, and to defend the Kingdom from danger, and not to be so penned up from casualty that they should be less able or serviceable in times of need. And therefore that objection savours not of good reason, but rather of the Officers concern for themselves, who are all for the most part well housed near about Rochester. But the service of his Majesty, and the safety of the Realm (in my poor opinion) ought to prevail beyond all other respects whatsoever: and to him that casts those needless doubts, it may well be said, pereat qui timet umbras [he who fears shadows is lost].
Of the needful expense in manning the Navy and other inconveniences from placing all the Fleet in Rochester Water
If the service of the shipping should lie towards for any of these places above named, or for Spain, or for the Islands, they are enforced of very necessity to press the best and greatest part of their men out of the West Country, which causes no small charge in bringing them so far as between there and Rochester, and then when they are embarked at Rochester, their charge is again redoubled in their pay and expense of victuals, before the ships can reach so far as Plymouth, which many times takes long to do, for they usually do touch at Plymouth in all Southern voyages, for the furnishing of many sea-necessaries, which that country can provide. And therefore for so many ships as should be resident there, the charges of conduct-money for mariners, of wages and of victuals, would be well saved for all that time, which is spent between Rochester and Plymouth. Besides, if it may be presumed, that enemies would not be so troublesome to the Western coasts, nor would that country itself be so often dismayed with alarms, as they have been of late years, if some of his Majesties good ships were resident in those parts. If therefore in his Majesty's wisdom it should appear fit, to bestow some of his shipping in any of these harbours named above, it shall be very needful likewise that there be a magazine of all manner of necessary provisions and munitions in the same places, according to the proportion of the shipping that shall be resident there, whereby such defects as by accident may happen, shall upon any occasion be readily supplyed without delays or hindrance of service. And also that in the same places, some officers belonging to the Admiralty always be in attendance, otherwise it would be found very inconvenient to be enforced always to attend such helps and supplies as must come from so far off as London, when it may more easily and with less charge be effected in places where the ships ride.
Of Great Ordnance.
It was also very fitting, that his Majesties ships were not so over-pestered and clogged with great ordnance as they are, of which there is such superfluity, as that much of it serves to no better use, than to labour and overload the ships' sides in any grown seas and foul weather. Besides many of the ships, that are allowed only twenty gunners, have forty brass pieces, whereas every piece requires at least four gunners to attend it, and so that proportion of ordnance to so few gunners is very preposterous: for when a ship heels or rolls in foul weather, the breaking loose of ordnance is a very dangerous thing, which the gunners can hardly prevent or well look into, they being so few, the guns so many; after all we see that twenty or thirty good brass pieces, such as cannon, demi-cannon, culverin, and demi-culverin, is a Royal Battery for a Prince to bring before any town or strong fortress. And why then should we not think the same to be a very large proportion for one ship to batter another with ? If it is, then his Majesty may ratably [proportionately] save a great part of the ordnance throughout every ship, and make the Navy the more sufficient and serviceable, and thereby also save a great deal of needless expense in superfluous powder and shot, that is now intended to be delivered out according to this huge and excessive proportion of artillery, if many of which had not been struck down into the hold in many voyages and (especially in this last journey to the Islands) several of the ships, weight, heft, and charge thereof [with that top-weight], would have foundered in the sea: in which I refer you to such as have served in them, and seen the proof of this. For this journey to the Islands, did more than all others, reveal to us these experiences and trials in the Royal Navy, because it was the longest navigation that was ever made out of our Realm with so many of the Prince's ships, and tarrying out so late in the year, so that both the winds and seas had power and time thoroughly to search and examine them. Besides, many times, there is no proportion of shot and powder allowed according to that quantity of great ordnance, as was seen in the sea battle with the Spaniards in the year 1588, when it so closely concerned the defence and preservation of the Kingdom. So that then many of those great guns, wanting powder and shot, stood just like cyphers and scarecrows, not unlike the Easterling hulks, who used to place great red port-holes in their broad sides where they carried no ordnance at all.
Of caulking and sheathing his Majesty's ships
There is a great error committed in the manner of caulking his Majesty's ships, which, being done with rotten oakum, is the cause that they are leaky; and the reason is this, because they make their oakum with which they caulk the seams of the ships of old sear [withered, dried] and weather-beaten ropes, when they are over-spent, and grown so rotten, that they serve for no other use but to make rotten oakum, which moulders and washes away with every sea, as the ships labour and are tossed. Whereas indeed of all other things, the most special and best choice would be made of that stuff to have it both new and good, for that sparing to employ old rotten ropes, is a great defect either in the building of new ships or in the repairing of old, and is the cause why after every journey they must be newly caulked. And therefore it were much to be wished, as a thing fit for his Majesty's service, profitable for the Navy, and happy for those that shall serve in them, that the whole Navy throughout were all sheathed, as some of them are. The benefit and good of which for sea-service is manifold, and no less frugal for his Majesty, in making his ships as strong and lasting in this way, as they are otherwise good of sail. And then shall they never need (scarcely once in ten years) this new caulking and repairing which they now have almost every year. And on this let the censure be taken of the best seamen of England, and they will not vary from this opinion.
Of Victualling
As his Majesty's due allowance for victualling of ships is very large and honourable, and would be greatly to the encouragement and strengthening of the mariners and soldiers that serve in them, if it were faithfully distributed, the Sea-service (indeed) being very miserable and painful, so again, as the allowance is abused and purloined, it is very scant and dishonourable to the great slander of the Navy, to the discouragement of all them that are pressed into it, and to the hindrance of his Majesty's service. Because many times they go with a great grudging to serve in his Majesty's ships, as though it were to be slaves in the gallies. So much do they stand in fear of penury and hunger; the case being clean contrary [completely opposite] in all merchants' ships. And therefore the purveyors and victuallers are much to be condemned, as not a little faulty in that respect, who make no little profit of those pollings [depredations], which is a very lamentable cause, that such as sit in ease at home, should so raise a benefit out of the hunger and thirst, of those that serve their Prince and country painfully abroad, about which there has for a long time been great complaining, but small reformation.
Of beer casks
There is also daily proof made, what great inconveniences grow from the bad casks which are used in his Majesty's ships, being commonly so ill seasoned and conditioned, as that a great part of the beer is always lost and cast away, or (if from necessity it is used) it breeds infection, and corrupts all those that drink it. Because the victuallers for cheapness will buy stale casks that have been used for herring, train oil, fish and other such unsavoury things, and fill the beer that is provided for the Kings' ships into these. Besides the casks are commonly so ill-hooped that there is waste and leakage made of the fourth part of all the drink, even if were always good, which is a great expense to his Majesty, a hindrance of service, and a hazard to mens' lives, when the provision fails so much and answers not the account. This might easily be redressed, if the casks for his Majesty's shipping were purposely hooped in such a way as wine casks are, or else hooped with iron, which would ever serve and save that continual provision of new casks, which now happens in every voyage. But this course were more profitable for his Majesty than for his Officers, and therefore unpleasing to be spoken of. But such as serve in the ships have good cause to wish for the reformation of this.
Of the cookrooms in his Majesty's ships
And whereas now the cookrooms in all of his Majesty's ships are made in the hold, below the waist, the inconveniences of which are found in many ways by daily use and experience. For first it is a great spoil and annoyance to all the drink and victuals which are stowed in the hold, from the heat that comes from the cookroom. Besides it is very dangerous for fire and very offensive with the smoke and unsavoury smells which it sends from thence. Moreover it is a great weakening to a ship to have so much weight and loading at both ends, and nothing in the mid-ship, which causeth them to warp, and (in the sea-phrase, and with mariners) is termed camber-keeled: whereas if the cookrooms were to be made in the forecastle (as very fittingly they might be) all those inconveniences above specified, would be avoided, and then also there would be more room for stowage of victuals, or any other necessary provisions, of which there is now daily found great shortage. And the convenience of this new cookroom the merchants have found to be so great, that in all their ships (for the most part) the cookrooms are built in the forecastles, contrary to that which has been anciently used. In which change notwithstanding, they have found no inconvenience to their dressing of meat in foul weather, but rather a great ease, although their ships go on as long voyages as any, and are for their burthens as well manned. For if any storms arise, or the seas grow so high that the kettle cannot be boiled in the forecastles, yet having with their beer and biscuit, butter and cheese, and with their pickled herrings, oil, vinegar and onions, or with their red herrings [smoked, kippers] and dry sprats, oil and mustard, and other such provisions that need no fire, this supply and variety of victuals, will very sufficiently content and nourish men for a time, until the storm be blown over, that kept the kettle from boiling.
Of mustering and pressing able mariners
As concerning the musters and presses for sufficient mariners to serve in his Majesty's ships, either there is very little care in this, or the bribery is very great, so that of all other shipping, his Majesty's are always the worst manned, and at such times as the Commissioners' commissions come out for the pressing of mariners, the officers do set out the most needy and unable men, and (for considerations best known to themselves) do discharge the better sort, a matter so commonly used, as that it is grown into a Proverb amongst the sailors, that "the muster-masters do carry the best and ablest men in their pockets", a custom very evil and dangerous, when the service and use of men should come to trial. For many of those poor fishermen and idlers, that are commonly presented to his Majesty's ships, are so ignorant in Sea-service, that they do not know the name of a rope, and are therefore insufficient for such labour. This might easily be redressed; if the Vice-Admiral of the Shire where men are mustered, and two Justices, had directions given to them to join with the muster-masters for the pressing of the best men whom they well know, and would not allow the service of the Prince and Country to be bought and sold, as a private Muster-master would do. Besides, the Captains themselves of the ships, if they be bare and needy (though a pity it were that men of such condition should have such charge committed unto them) will often for commodity chop and change away their good men; and therefore it were fitting to bridle such odd captains, that neither they themselves, nor any of their men, should receive his Majesty's pay but by the pole [head-count], and according to how they were set down in the officers' books when they were delivered, without changing of any names, except to supply such men as are lacking by death or sickness, upon good testimony under the hands of the Master, the Boatswain, the Master Gunner, the Purser, and other Officers of the ship. For it closely concerns them to look well into this, having daily use of them.
Of arms and munitions
It were a course very comfortable, defensive and honourable, that there were for all his Majesty's ships a proportion of swords, targets of proof, morions, and curatts [cuirasses ?] of proof, allowed and set down for every ship, according to its burthen, as a thing both warlike, and used in the King of Spain's ships, the lack of which is a great discouragement to men, if they come to any close fight or landing, just as its use would be a great annoyance and terrifying to the enemy. And in this his Majesty should need to be at no extraordinary expense: for the abating of the superfluous great pieces in every ship, with their allowance for powder, match and shot, would supply the cost of this provision in very ample manner.
Of Captains to serve in his Majesties ships
At all such times as his Majesty's ships are employed in service, it would be very convenient that such Gentlemen as are his Majesty's own sworn servants, should be preferred to the charge of his Majesty's ships, choice being made of men of valour, and capacity; rather than to employ other mens' men. And that other of his Majesty's servants should be dispersed privately in those services to gain experience, and to make themselves able to take charge. By which means his Majesty should always have Gentlemen of good account, his own servants, as Captains of his own ships, instead of petty companions and other mens' servants, who are often employed, this being (indeed) a great indignity to his Majesty, to his shipping and to his own Gentlemen, because in past times, it has been reputed a great grace to any man of the best sort, to have the charge of the Prince's ship committed to him. And by this means there would always be true report made to the Prince of what proceedings are used in the service, which these meaner sort of Captains dare not do, for fear of displeasing the Lords their Masters, by whom they are preferred, or being of an inferior quality, have no good access to the presence of the Prince, in which to have fit opportunity to make relation accordingly.
But now forasmuch as I doubt not, but that some contrary spirits may or will object this as a sufficient reason to infirm [weaken] all those points that I have formerly spoken of, and say to me, why should his Majesty and the State be troubled with this needless charge of keeping and maintaining so great a Navy in such exquisite perfection, and readiness ? the times being now peaceable, and little use for arms or ships of war, either at home or abroad, but all safe and secure, both by the uniting of the two Nations, as by the peace which we hold with Spain, and all other Christian Princes. To this I answer, that this (indeed) may stand (at the first sight) for a pretty superficial argument to blear our eyes, and lull us asleep in security, and make us negligent and careless of those causes from which the effects of peace grow, and by the virtue of which it must be maintained. But we must not flatter and deceive ourselves, to think that this calm and concord proceeds either from a settled immutable tranquility in the world (which is full of alterations and various humours) or from the good affections of our late enemies, who have tasted too many disgraces, repulses, and losses, by our forces and shipping, to wish our State so much felicity as a happy and peaceable government, if otherwise they had power to hinder it. And therefore though the sword be put into the sheath, we must not suffer it there to rust, or stick so fast [tight], that we shall not be able to draw it readily when need requires. For albeit our enemies have of late years sought peace with us, yet it has proceeded out of the former trial of our forces in times of war and enmity. And therefore we may well say of them as Anneus (Praetor of the Latins) said of the Roman Ambassadors, who seemed curious and careful to have the League maintained between them (which the Roman estate was not accustomed to seek at their neighbours' hands) and thereupon said this Anneus, unde haec illis tanta modestia nisi ex cognitione virium & nostrarum & suarum [from whence comes this, their so great modesty, unless to acquire knowledge of our force and theirs]. For with the like consideration and respect have our late enemies sought to renew the ancient friendship and peace with us. And well we may be assured, that if those powerful means by which we reduced them to that modesty and courtesy as to seek us, were utterly laid aside and neglected, so that we could not again upon occasion readily assume the use and benefit of them, as we have done, those proud mastering spirits, finding us at such [dis]advantage, would be more ready and willing to shake us by the ears as enemies, than to take us by the hands as friends. And therefore far be it from our hearts to trust more to that friendship of strangers, that is but dissembled upon policy and necessity, than to the strength of our own forces, which has been experienced with such happy success. I confess that peace is a great blessing of God, and blessed are the peacemakers, and therefore doubtless blessed are those means by which peace is gained and maintained. For well we know that God works all things here amongst us mediately [intervening] by a secondary means. The means of our defence and safety being shipping, and Sea-Forces, these are to be esteemed as his gifts, and then only available and beneficial, when he also vouchsafes his grace to use them aright. FINIS.