The Manuscript Livro Primeiro da Architectura Naval, ff 41-78 of Codex No 63 of the Salazar Collection,

in the Library of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Originally published in Ethnos, Vol.IV, 1965, Lisbon, from a transcription by Dr João Da Gama Pimentel Barata.

 Translation: R.A.Barker, 1986-92, corrected 1993 from the new transcription.

Published by the Academia de Marinha, Lisbon, 1996, as a facsimile, transcript and translation; and including the 1965 commentary by Dr João da Gama Pimentel Barata, revised and updated from his notes on a draft translation in 1986; together with further annotation by the translator. [Academia de Marinha, Edifício da Marinha, Praça do Município, Lisboa 1188].

 This web version of the text omits all footnotes and the commentary, appendices, etc.

Architecture is (as Vitruvius defines it) a Science adorned with diverse precepts, with whose vote the works that other Arts make are approved. The name is composed of two Greek words and means Princess of the Arts, which will duly place it in that pre-eminence which it has over all the others (incorrectly called Mechanics) which are practised and exercised by their professors, in stone, in wood, and in metals, from which the excellence of Architecture proceeds (and Vitruvius calls it Science). Because the other Arts take precepts from it alone, it alone gives reason to the works that professors make from them, if one looks and discovers marvellous and concealed things. And it alone takes advantage of certain Sciences, which are Arithmetic and Geometry, without which all Art is paltry, and of little worth; and whatever possesses these, as much as it has them, so much has it nobility. With the communication of these, and of the other disciplines with which Architecture is adorned, it is differentiated also from the Arts, which arising only from external perceptions, are obtained with experience, and are perfected with the use of the hands. But because other noble Arts are also enriched with various Sciences, it is fitting that the definition of Architecture should have a proper difference and this is that the works, which the other Arts perfect, will be approved with its judgement, a most noble attribute, and granted only to the learned and wise.

Architecture is born (as the same Vitruvius says) of Building and of Discourse. Building is a continuous, and customary contemplation of the exercise, put into practice with the hands, in the material of the kind which may be necessary for the work, and Discourse is what declares and demonstrates the things built with proportion and industry.

And these two things being the progenitors of Architecture, it appears that no-one can use the name of Architect without them, except by usurping the title which does not belong to them. Because use alone does not make an Architect, nor Discourse alone, he who wishes to be an Architect with only reports, and the abstract knowledge of things, would thus find himself very deceived, wishing to put work in hand, some his imaginings, which unaccompanied by practical exercise are most often fantasies. And thus losing credit and authority he will be subject to affronts and the contempt of the journeymen. He who knows how to work a stone or a timber may also be considered worthy of this name; but Discourse, that is the principal part, lacking in him, in all he will proceed blindly; in nothing will he be trusted, unless he can prove it with long experience; and for nothing that he may make will he be able to give reason, and thus, when theoreticians will ask him about his works, he will be dumb, and similarly on the subject in which he exercises his office. Thus it is fitting that he who may have knowledge of practice and may be very speculative, may wish to merit with just title the name of Architect. And thus it will be he, who, with marvellous proportion and certain rule, will order with understanding and contemplation, and will complete with practice, all these things, which by means of movement of weights and assembly of bodies, can serve for the use of men. And to be so, which in this definition Lião Baptista Alberti [1] (whose it is) affirms, it is necessary that, endowed with keen skill, mature counsel, and wisdom, he may be very studious and adorned with singular abilities, of which the principal will be Delineation (debuxo), and (from Mathematics), Perspective, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Mechanics. With Delineation and Perspective he will represent his works in drawings; and to make an account of the expense of it, and to understand and to declare with numbers the proportions of its dimensions, there has to be knowledge of Arithmetic; and of Geometry to measure all the parts of its fabric. It is fitting that he may know Astronomy, which might be necessary to him to know the variation of the seasons, the parts of the sky, and the division and situation of the winds; and that he may be very skilful in Mechanics to correctly build the necessary machines for his buildings. All of which he ought to adorn with knowledge of languages, to have what is written in his profession; and with the knowledge of literature, to manifest his concepts with Art, and to be perpetuated in the memory of men with his writings. And it may not appear to the draughtsmen (tracistas) of today, individually called Architects, that because they do not have any skill in the Parts described, knowing only how to draw with delicacy and cleanliness, two perpendicular lines and four parallels, that impossibilities are proposed to them in the description of the Architect, which is to describe an orator from Cicero, to imagine a politician from Plato, and to feign a Prince from Xenophon, that they are very deceived: because those who were formerly called Architects obtained for this name its just worth, not being given except to him who would merit it by these requisites noted down. And he who may have in great abundance those requisites that are proposed, will not be lacking today; but as it is not customary to give the title of Architect on account of sufficiency, it may be that the mindful may not desire it, the idiot having equality with him; and with so much reason it will be denied to him who is content to merit that.

The qualities which an Architect has to have being proposed and manifest, which are no more necessary to him than knowledge of syllables is to the poet, he ought to know that Architecture consists of six parts, which are Ordinance, Disposition, Correspondence, Adornment (ornato) [sometimes rendered as symmetry], Decorum and Distribution.

Ordinance is a summary understanding of the whole work, which the Architect ought to make with imagination, and in that he has to emend errors, and inconveniences, which will be presented to him, so that corrected with the Parts (partes) with which we adorn it, it comes out perfect, and he can put it into practice.

Disposition is a harmonised distinction of the parts of the fabric which is to be made, or is a figure of the work, put in outline. Because after the Architect makes a universal concept of the whole work in his imagination, serving him for Ordinance, it is fitting that, to distinguish its parts, he represent it in outline, so that everything is seen, and principally of the fabric, which has to be satisfied with the design of the whole. And this Disposition is made in five ways, in plan, in elevation, in section (perfil), in perspective and in model. The plan is a simple outline of the fabric that represents the common section of the level planes, and from this the place of the parts of the work is known, and their lengths and breadths, their capacities being measured in that. The elevation is a raised image of the front or of the sides of the fabric, and this shows the heights, which cannot be seen in the plan. The section is a representation of the thickness, drawn out, of the enclosed spaces and depth of the interior parts of the building; and this part assigns in it what in a human body a brave anatomist shows, and is of great importance, for the understanding of the work, and of the cost of it. Perspective is the figure of the whole fabric presented to view, according to its position and to that of the eyes. This part is pleasing, and very necessary in order that the whole edifice may be seen sketched on paper; but the model, which is the perfect image of all the parts of the work, represents it better. It is accustomed to be made of wood, of plaster, of clay, of wax and of card, and in it are included all the other four parts, because in the model one sees the plan, the elevation, the section and the perspective.

Correspondence is the propriety and proportion of the parts of the whole work among themselves, which ought to correspond in such manner one to the others, and to be measured, with the members of the human body, of which the common measure is the finger, the palm, the foot, the cubit (côvado [2]) and other similar parts.

Adornment is a gracious beauty and delightful aspect of the composition of the parts of the edifice, which originates in Correspondence; because it has it when its breadths, lengths and heights correspond, and harmonise.

Decorum is a decency and propriety observed in the work, approved with authority, which is obtained when suitable buildings are made, adapted to the time, to the place, and to the people they have to serve.

And finally, Distribution is a convenient and advantageous dispensation of the necessary things, and a judicious moderation of the expense, made with reason. This is practised when one does not seek for the building that which cannot be found, except at too great price, and when it is built according to the resources and quality of the owner of the work.

Architecture consists in building, which is the permanent construction of any thing. This is done either for defence, or for religion, and utility, or for navigation. And from this partition is born the division of Architecture into three parts which are Military, Civil and Naval Architecture [as 1].

Military Architecture is that which teaches us to build in such a way that fortifications safeguard us from the enemy, which causes building of walls, bulwarks, batteries (cavaleiros), towers, bastions, gun carriages, stockades, trenches, pits, etc, whose precepts and rules Alberto Durero [3], Hieronimo Maggi [4], Carlo Theti [5], the Galarzo, Hieronimo Cataneo [6], Jacobo Lantero [7], Battista Zanchi [8] and other moderns teach in their writings, who with their skill discovering marvellous things in this Art have put it in great dignity and attained its perfection.

Civil Architecture teaches the building of Temples consecrated to God and his Saints, and other buildings dedicated to the divine cult, and for public and private utility, harbours, squares, streets, fountains, aqueducts, baths, theatres, bridges, porticos, palaces, houses, etc. For which in the time of Augustus Caesar, M.Vitruvius Pollião [9] wrote ten books; on which singular doctrine Cesar Cesariaõ [10], the patriarch Daniel Barbaro [11], the caporal, and Guilhelme Philandro [12] will comment; and thus Lião Baptista Alberti, Sebastiaõ Serlio [13], Labacco [14], Pedro Cataneo [15], Palladio [16], Vignola [17], Philiberto del'Orme [18], Jacques Androvetio [19], and other authors will make it illustrious with their writings.

And Naval Architecture is that which with certain rules teaches the building of ships, in which one can navigate well and conveniently. Of this (leaving aside the two others) we have to treat. And as up to now no Greek, Latin, or vernacular author has written on that, whose writings may throw some light on a subject, by its novelty so obscure, it is a very difficult undertaking, without this prior report, to reduce to art the crude practice of the builders of ships, learned from their masters, who will have learned it from others less adequate than they themselves, and to draw from their uncertain rules (with which they will never be able to make two naus wholly alike) sure and determined precepts (as the other two Architectures, Military and Civil have), with which they may build the ships with art, without which today they may build by feeling their way; but the aspirations will make up for the faults that there may be in the new creation of this Art, and in the construction of its rules, with which it was sought to be right. And those who will undertake, for the public benefit, to place the first stone in this edifice, will be able to raise the great skills so high upon it, that there may be no envy of the most ornate with which the ancient and moderns will embellish their works.

To this our Naval Architecture, and to its professor, belongs what may be said of Architecture and the Universal Architect, and thus it is created from practice, and from speculation; and both are fitting for its Architect to have, he being skilled in working the material which serves for this Art (which is timber), and very speculative to demonstrate and to declare the proportion, the Art, with which he orders his ship, so that he satisfies the questions of the learned, and frees himself from the ridicule of the ignorant. It is moreover necessary that he may know how to draw, and to outline, and may have some knowledge of Astronomy, and much of Arithmetic, of Geometry, and of Mechanics, which are parts of Mathematics. For with drawing he will represent his works, and with Delineation he will give them grace, which they will not be able to have without it. With Arithmetic he will estimate the cost of the ship that he intends to make, and will understand the proportions of its dimensions. Geometry will teach him to measure all the parts of its fabric, to level them, to square them, to compass them, to gauge the ships, and to use lines, angles, and areas, and many other things, for which they depend on this Science; there is need of Astronomy for knowledge of the suitable seasons for the felling of timbers, according to the location of the province in which they shoot up and grow, in respect of the sky and its influences; and thus the knowledge of the tides (dependent on the movement of the Moon, and of its conjunctions and oppositions) to launch ships (deitar ao mar), or draw them ashore (tirar a monte) [20]. Mechanics will give him all the machines which may be used in his shipbuilding, such as cradles (envasaduras [21]), windlasses, capstans, cables, pulleys. This Science shows the reasoning for careening (querena) [22], for the control of the rudder, and of navigation with oars; in it is founded all the management of the rigging, and with its knowledge many other machines will be invented at the convenient and necessary time and place.

And because this our Naval Architecture contains so much of Ordinance, Disposition, Correspondence, Adornment, Decorum and Distribution, it is fitting that its Architect may keep with great observance all these parts in his works. For which it is necessary, first of all, that he may form in his imagination, making use of Ordinance, a figure of the ship that he wishes to build, and that he may perfect this with understanding, and with the rules of his Art, so that, corrected in this way of the faults and inconveniences that are shown to him, he may then be able to draw it (Disposition being used) in all the five modes which this part uses, and will thus make the plans of his ship, which in this construction will be the figures of the keel, the stem, the post, the transom, the fashion pieces, the master frame, the braço [first futtock - 23], apostura [futtocks and naval timber - 24], of the breadth of the ship where it is widest. And thus of the decks, and of more that he may wish to draw in this mode. He will then make elevations of the stern, of the prow, and of one or the other side of the ship. And with the section he will show its internal parts, cutting it along from poop to prow, or across, through any place that he may wish to be seen. Then he will put in perspective all this his fabric, according to aspect and location that he may choose for it. And finally, which is very important, he will make a model of it in wood [25], in which he will recognise the faults better than in his imagination, and thus corrected, he will finish it, so that from that model the ship that he determines to build will be made with great perfection. And it may not appear to the professor of this Art, who wishes to merit the name of Architect of this Art, that he can avoid the use of these five parts of Disposition, and that it suffices him to know the measurements of the proposed ship; for without the said parts to be able to finish it, without which he will be greatly deceived, he will commit many errors; and to avoid these, it is fitting that he make the model in which to correct them first, and this perfected serves him for pattern (molde) and example from which he may make all the ships of that kind and size. But as the model costs time and money, there may by misfortune be waste and expense of both, and consideration is not now made of much that concerns the building of an India Nau, for with one hundred cruzados [26] more (which is what his model can cost) it is made correct and without errors.

Our Architect ought, further, to consider with great care three other parts of Architecture, which are Correspondence, Adornment and Decorum, and to seek that they be seen in his works, for which the construction and presence of the model will be of great moment to him, because these three parts sought for and found in that, the ship also, that from that model must be built, will also have them. And thus it is fitting that Correspondence is kept between its parts, not sufficing that all these have their dimensions determined, unless they come together in such a way among themselves that they correspond proportionally, because nothing may be excessive nor lacking with proportion; the work may be solid, and the Art with which it is made marvellous. Such is certain in this our Art, seeing the Correspondence in a ship, in its keel, in the post, in the transom, in the rakes, in the entry and run, in the master frame, in the height of the decks, in the greatest breadth, in the length and thickness of the masts and yards, in the size of the sails, in the size of the tops, in the siting and distribution of some spaces, and thus in all the other things, as will be seen below. It will be no less admirable than the ingenious composition of the human body, in which (being well-proportioned), as any of its parts is common measure of all, with that alone one may come to knowledge of its whole size and composition; in the same way, any part of a ship built with Art measures it all, and when from some shipwreck only one entire part is found, from that it is possible to know its size and to make another ship wholly similar to that destroyed. The fabric of our Architect having this so necessary Correspondence, all its lengths, breadths and heights will correspond among themselves with great harmony, as a well-tempered viola; from which the work will receive a pleasing beauty, and delightful aspect, which is the other part of the three, called Adornment. And when one keeps in the same fabric the propriety owing to the time and to the place, making the ships according to the seas through which they have to sail, to the port into which they have to enter, and to the service that is to be had of them, Decorum has been attained [27].

It is also necessary that besides the said parts that must be manifested in the works of the Naval Architect, that Distribution may be perceived in it; so that using that he may choose the materials for his work with temperance, and may make it with the most judicious expense that he can, being suited to the land where he builds, what there is in it being used, and not seeking what cannot be obtained without great expense; because Nature works with such variety in this earthly world that in one province it produces Teak (teca), Angelim, in another the Cork (sovero) and European (carvalho) Oaks, and Pine (pinho), in another Lerez and Fir (abeto), and in another different timbers from which ships can be made. In one part there is flax and hemp, and in another the lack of this is overcome with coir; and in one the trees give tar, and in another there is a certain bitumen which serves the same purpose. Adorned with which varieties the Earth is more beautiful than if it had all produced everything. Our Naval Architect, then, may use all these things, according to the place where he is, with which exercising Distribution, and the other five parts of Architecture being used, and accompanied by the Sciences with which we adorn it, he will be perfect in his profession, and will justly merit the title of Naval Architect.

Chapter 5. OF THE MATERIALS WHICH ARE USED IN THIS ART, AND FIRSTLY OF TIMBERS [28].

The parts of which Naval Architecture consists being understood, and how they are to be put into practice in it, and those that its professor ought to have, not to usurp the name of Architect; it is fitting that he accompany them with knowledge of the necessary materials which there are for the building of ships, so that with this he may know how to use the good, and to reject those that are not, the perfection of his works depending on this choice. And as he ought to procure these with great care, to attain honour and fame, which is the end that is intended in the said works, and not private profit, it is necessary, that if he desires to achieve this honourable intention, he may render great esteem for this knowledge of materials, since without that the selection of those things which there is need of to achieve what he intends will not be good.

These materials are timber, nails, linen, tow, tar, pitch, grease and lead. And beginning with timbers; if in a plank of these is the salvation of the sailors, and only two fingers thickness of it is placed between them and death, as Anacarsi Schyta, one of the seven wise men of Greece [29], says, it will be a great temerity to esteem lightly knowledge of the nature of timber from which the plank is made, and of the season in which it has to be cut, since that is not what is convenient for this construction, for being cut out of season it becomes unable to resist the waves, and being corrupted, is soon the perdition of those who trust in it. The qualities of the timbers ought therefore to be noted with great care, and from them chosen those necessary for the use of this Art. For which it is fitting that they may be tough, dry, of bitter and resinous sap, and pliable (brando [30]). The toughness and strength of these resists the impetus of the seas, and of the winds, being dried from dampness they will not rot much with the dampness of the waters, before they are conserved in them. And to rid themselves of the waters their sap has to be resinous, and, so that the shipworm (busano) [teredo navalis - 31] does not enter into them, bitter. And finally pliable [as 30], so that when bending them (as is necessary in some parts) they may not split.

All these qualities are with difficulty found in one species of tree, and only Teak [32] and Angelim [33] have them, whose timbers appear incorruptible, and [it appears] that nature created them for Naval Architecture. However, since we do not have these (natives of the coast of Malabar), it is compelled that we use what shoots up in this land, and which for this Art, and for the great naus of our long navigations, are the best in Europe. One of these is the Cork Oak [34], for the skeleton, and another the Stone Pine (pinho manso) [35], for the planking, The Cork Oak is very hard, dry, on account of its density exterior humours do not enter it, it does not nurture dry rot (caruncho) [36], nor rot in water, before it is conserved in that with dampness, and made green again, and besides all these qualities, so conformable to what is needed, it has another, no less important, which is the tortuosity of its branches, curved in such a way that it appears to have been created only for this Art. And because planking cannot be made from this tree, Stone Pine serves for that, whose timber is pliable [as 30], and as such can be bent, and accommodate all the turns of the side of the nau, which the skeleton makes. And it has one more perfection, that its resin resists greatly the dampness of the water, and being bitter, the teredo (bicho) [as 31] does not enter into it. And thus in the timbers of these two trees we have those which are necessary for naval construction, because in all qualities they conform with those appointed and which our Art ought to use.

In the cold lands where the Cork Oak is not grown (nor the Holm Oak (azinho) [37], which conforms with that in nature, and thus serves for the same purpose) there are great Oaks [38], and from them are made the skeleton and planking of the ships of those parts. Their timber is less hard, and more humid than that of Cork Oak, from which it is more subject to rot, and to the teredo (busano) [as 31]; principally in warm seas, such as those of Guinea and Brasil, where with the great heat of the Sun, and the natural dampness of this timber, it soon rots, and is eaten by teredo (bicho) [as 31]. But in the cold seas of Europe it endures a great time, and the coldness of these seas preserves it. For galleys it is very proper for its strength and lightness: those which do not ordinarily navigate except through the Mediterranean Sea, or on the coasts of this our Ocean, will be free from the said dangers.

There are besides these trees others whose timbers may serve for this Art, which are Maritime Pine (pinho bravo) [39], Fir [40], Lerez [41], Cedar [42], Cypress [43], and Black Poplar (alemo negro) [44]. The Maritime Pine is less resistent and less dense than the Stone Pine, and thus the dampness of the sea penetrates its timber and easily rots it. But because it is light, it serves in building for the dead-works, in which it is not always wet, lasts, and is preserved. And for masts and yards it is very necessary, as we will say when we deal with these. The Ancient Greeks and Latins will build their ships from Fir, for the perfection of its timber. And they also made them from Lerez, which even now the Levantines use, for the great abundance which they have of it. And if what Vitruvius, and Pliny, accounts for it may be truth and propriety, it may be of inestimable worth for the building of naus, if fire does not catch in it. But it may burn, although with great resistance. The Kings of Egypt will use Cedar, as the same Pliny relates, and although it is held to be incorruptible, Palladio [45] states that it soon rots in water, and that it splits on nailing. The Ancients also made use of Cypress and Poplar, in the absence of Fir and of Lerez, but as we have groves of neither one nor the other of these trees, such as one requires for shipbuilding, we do not use any of these. It is however necessary to know their nature, and to understand that, lacking the others, these can serve us when there may be abundance of them.

And because in Guinea, in Brasil, and in the remaining provinces of the Conquest of this Kingdom, there are many dense groves of unknown trees, of such size that they appear to have had their birth jointly with the Earth, among which there ought to be many, very proper for this building of ships, it is fitting that he may have knowledge of the signs, indicators of their qualities, so that knowing them by these he may use those which may be necessary for this Art. These signs are the leaf and the fruit, which in trees are indicative of their nature as in animals; they are the exterior signs of their interior temperaments (compreissões). And thus trees with rough bark, crisp leaves and hard fruit have dense, strong timber, and those which on the contrary have smooth bark, soft leaves and soft fruit, are of soft, porous timber. Those which grow slowly, created over a great time, are stronger than those which grow quickly. The heavy are more twisted and hard than the light. Those which last, and live long, rot slowly, and the less heart it has the more robust its nature, and those that are resinous and of bitter sap greatly resist the water and the teredo (busano [as 31]).

With these signs the Naval Architect will know well which are the suitable timbers for his fabric, but the knowledge of these, attained in this way or with broad experience in one land, does not make a general rule for all the others where he may find himself, because he will be greatly misled, and his work will turn out much to the contrary of what he intends, because the qualities of trees vary greatly, according to the temperament of the region in which they shoot up and grow, caused either by the site and disposition, or by celestial influences, to which these vegetables are totally subordinated. And that is as much as Vitruvius also states, that the Cork Oak in Italy is similar in composition to the Beech (faya) [46], which by having much air makes the timber sparse and porous, and as such it receives into itself the exterior humours, and rots with ease, which is totally contrary to the nature of the Cork Oak which shoots up in this Kingdom.

And not only do the qualities of trees vary in different provinces, but in one and the same those of one species make different timbers, according to the sites. However, those which are raised in bleak places, and are not sheltered in groves, and of the mountains, combat the winds and tempests, are tougher, thicker, shorter, and more knotty than those which shoot up in valleys and in shelter, and those of humid and dark places are softer than those grown in dry and open places.

And the positions make such a difference, that one and the same tree shows it in respect of these. Because that part of it which is turned to the middle of the day is drier and denser than the others, and the heart of that same side will be nearer to the pith; and the further the parts of the tree spread, so much the more sinewy they are; and the heart is so much harder and denser; and those closest to the earth, and the roots, are denser than all the others.

Little advantage will be gained from the timbers chosen, and their qualities, which are required for this work, if they are felled green, and without season: because they will not be of sufficiently incorruptible nature, such that they will not split, twist, shrink and rot. And this seasonal felling is of such importance that one of the causes of the loss of naus arises if great care is not taken in it. The season after which trees are mature, and ought to be gathered, is after they have given their fruit, and, all their virtue and strength gathered in, they are resting before fruiting anew. The cause of this their alteration is the presence and the absence of the Sun, which approaching the trees with its own movement warms them, and with its heat gathering the nourishment of the earth to them, they conceive their fruit in proper season, and they grow it. Their office fulfilled, they withdraw into themselves with the cold caused by the absence of the Sun, contract, and rebuild the exhausted potency, so that they may return to expend it again when this planet may turn around, and it approaches them anew. Which movement of the Sun, is what will teach us this season; since as we have said the ripeness of trees depends upon it. And because the Sun reaches them and begins to warm them in the beginning of Spring, or Summer, this warming continuing more in the Summer; when Autumn may come it will already be going away from them, and with its absence they grow cold. It follows that the two seasons of the year, Autumn and Winter, appear to be suitable and proper for the trees to be felled. But because the fruit of these, which our Naval Architecture may use, may mature slowly, by their composition and hardness, they will need the great part of Autumn to be made perfect. And one or two months before Spring begins, in temperate lands, the trees anticipate the work of their fruiting. The proper seasonal time for this felling will be, for all trees, one month before Winter may begin and another after its beginning; because in the middle of these two months, that is, at the beginning of Winter, the Sun is the furthest away from the trees that it can be; and therefore they may be cut without suspicion of its alteration.

In these our parts of the North, these months are December and January, because in them Winter begins on the 24th of December, and it is the day of the greatest distance that the Sun goes from us. However, in other parts of the South, we do not have to govern ourselves by these months, but by the distance of the Sun from them, which will be greatest on the 22nd of June, the beginning of their Winter, when the Sun reaches us most and departs furthest from them. And thus the proper time for felling of timbers in these regions will be in June and July. And between the Tropics, where the seasons are doubled and unequal, and the Sun passes twice over the heads of those who live there, there are through this two Summers; and thus in the two places as far distant from these as it is possible to be, it causes them [to have] two Winters; these ought to be considered for the cutting of timbers. However, as the seasons are doubled, as we have said, and because from one season to another similar there is little distance, and in the temperament of all little difference; the trees are never idle, and always have new fruit, and old, together, and thus it is almost always time to gather them. And it does not appear that for this reason they will have their strength wasted and be exhausted so that they do not serve; it is rather to the contrary, that the timbers of the trees of those regions are harder and more durable than ours, which the continuous proximity to the Sun and warmth of its rays causes, with which the nutriment which they take from the Earth and receiving it cooked and digested, being perfected, they always have strength and are in proper season.

Besides this regard which we ought to have to the course of the Sun, from which to know the season for felling timbers, it is no less appropriate that regard should be had to the movement of the Moon, because as that may be closer to the Earth than all the other planets, and for that reason work on it more than them, and may be humid by its quality, continually raising humid vapours, with which it humidifies the air, corrupts the inferior bodies subject to it, dampness flowing into them and making them soft: and because it works with so much more force, the lighter it grows (which is from new to being full) and as it is diminished (which is from full to new) it weakens. And the dampness flows into the trees with great strength, growing and diminishing in them, according to whether this Planet shows us more or less light. It is fitting that in the appointed months, December and January, its waning is observed; for in that the timbers may be cut; because then the dampness in them (cause of their rotting) may be greatly dried and they become dry, and free from corruption, and dry rot (caruncho [as 36]); and thus one may have as a general rule, that the timbers for this work may be cut in the wanings of the Moon of the two months closest to the beginning of Winter, one before and one after, which in these parts are December and January, and in others those which we point out above [47].

But because not all these diligences are sufficient to preserve this corruptible material, its natural dampness, and the conservation of this material, is thus more important for the Naval Architect than for the Civil Architect; since the corruption of the timber of one house is of little consideration in respect to the rotting of a plank of a ship. This material ought also to be dried of intrinsic dampness (which being within it, not all the said preventions will suffice to stop it being corrupted) as Vitruvius teaches; cutting the tree to the middle of its heart, all the superfluous dampness may drain away, and being dried in this way it may become free from rapid corruption. And when no more dampness remains in the tree then it is felled. To which can be added, that its branches may also be cut off, still standing, and the bark may be removed from it; so that thus it may not be able to receive nourishment, neither from the bark nor from the root, nor give it to the branches.

Cut and felled, the timbers may not immediately be applied to shipbuilding, because as they may not be able to stop twisting, shrinking and splitting to some extent, although they are gathered with the given rules, it is fitting that any great evils arising from these may occur outside of the work, by the great injury that will follow, if it may make in it a very small split. And thus the timbers may be left many days either in the field, or in the shipyard or in salt water, according to their nature, and they may not be worked until after it is known of them that everything that may be feared has happened to them.

And no difficulty may be had in the execution of all the said circumstances, and things necessary in the cutting of timbers, because in the two wanings of the moon of December and January, where there are quantities of trees and multitudes of people a great number of these can be cut, for a great fleet, and to order the work in such manner that all those that need it may be cut to the middle, in half the said time, and in the other half, if they may finish slicing, and felling, beginning with those which will have been cut first. Because this space from the first cutting of a tree to its last is sufficient, for the trees to have drained all its dampness, intrinsic and injurious. But those are today so few, that it can already be feared (with notable injury to the navigations of this Kingdom, which it is fitting to remedy) that there may not be those to make a nau, which procedes from the little consideration with which the timbers are wasted, and a forest of great Cork Oaks is burned to make a sack of charcoal, as if they might not be necessary for any other use than for the fire, and that they might be able soon to sprout and grow others in short months, like plum trees (ameixieiras) [48].

The other materials for shipbuilding are as we have said nails, linen, tow, tar, pitch, grease and lead; which it is fitting that the prudent Architect may have prepared, and collected in abundance, before the beginning of the work, because as the great part of them may come from other lands, and they are not in this land, it is necessary that if he may make use of much warning, they being thus cheaper, as that they may not be lacking at the time that they may be needed, and by that cause for the building.

The fastening customary among us is iron, although in former times copper was used, and with that the famous ship of Hero of Syracuse was fastened, as Guilhelme Budeo (Book 5 de Asse. Book 4, Chapter 34) [49], and Vegetio [50] advises that it may be of the same material: because although the expense may appear by the value of the metals, this high cost may be recompensed with the long life of copper, whose nature is preserved in the water, and thus its nails; and rust shortly consumes those of iron, caused by the dampness of the sea. These are made use of now, however, and come from Biscay [51], because of the good temper that is given to the iron in that province, the well-tempered iron not breaking in the driving, and in the riveting where it is necessary, as for the perfection with which it is worked, and acceptable price for which it is bought. However if this fastening is lacking by some chance, and it is made in this City, it is neither well-made nor well-tempered, nor cheap. In France, Holland, Zeeland, England, and in all the other parts of the North, treenails are customary; which are wooden dowels, which may cost little, do not pull out because all are wedged, are light, do not create rust, and last equally as well as the other timber. These nails have to be a little thicker than those of iron, so that they may be strong; and they may have to be nailed more closely than those of iron, but not so much that in boring the timber they greatly weaken it; and at convenient places they have to interpose iron nails for greater security, and strength of the work. For all these advantages, known in the wooden nails, it appears that they are much better than those of iron, and it is thus, for the building of ships in which one sails in these cold Northern seas; because there are no teredo (busano - [as 31]) in them, nor (bruma - [as 31]). But in these our warm seas, and in those of the Conquest of this Kingdom, the use of these treenails is very injurious: because these worms (bichos) may grow great with the warmth in them (total destruction of the timber) [sic] and these may have by nature to gnaw the wood along the grain; entering through the planking of the side of the ship, from which they go burrowing along till they meet the end of the piece; by which intrusions, following their grain, they go through the timbers which the said treenails fasten, and in this way open many holes; in many parts the water enters through them, and corruption, and the planking and the skeleton rot in such manner that in two voyages the ship can serve only for the fire, which had made many and had lasted many years, if it had sailed where they will build it, and where such evil seed are not born. And it was providence of Nature (for which we ought to give thanks), in as much as it created a so injurious worm, to give it for natural appetite to open the timber along its grain, which worm if it should have passed across [the grain] with the holes which it makes, it had been impossible that the seas of Africa, Asia, and the New World might be navigated, except by covering the bottom of the ships with lead up to the surface of the water. To remedy then the injury, which this worm causes, it is fitting that the fastenings may not be of wood, but of iron, and well-tempered strength, and well-made; because the teredo (busano) entering through the planking of the ship, and burrowing along the grain, will not meet wooden dowels, through which it may pass, but hard iron, which its teeth may not gnaw. When this worm (bicho) shall cease to be a reason, for another reason also treenails cannot serve us in our naus, in which [we] sail to India, arising from their size and the thickness of the timbers: because as the thickness may be great and the length of the nails may have to be in conformity with it, being of wood, and having to have thickness proportionate to the length to be strong, they will be so thick that their holes cut away [lit: behead] all the timber, or when caution is taken in that they will be disproportionate, and so slender that they will break with any movement; so that for both the said reasons, iron fastenings are given; the Architect in our parts may take heed.

* * *

The Naval Architect adorned with the Sciences, and necessary skills (which are pointed out in the Chapter of the 1st Book) - [sic], attained by him with much study, and perseverance; very skilful in the proportioned dimensions of the ships, determined by the size of the ship and the use which it must serve, the timbers for it cut, under the said conditions, and the most necessary materials for its fabric collected together, it is fitting that to start he may arrange it, so that having the forms (formas), with which the necessary timbers for the ship are marked, they may be wrought by them. And because in the construction of a nau with four decks for cargo, of 17 1/2 rumos keel (which is the length most convenient for the size of the naus of this burthen), there is more difficulty than in all the others, we will take one of these for example, in which we will practice the rules of this Art. From which the artificer skilled in it may undertake with confidence the construction of any ship of the same kind.

The forms which have to be designed are the heel of the stern (couce da popa), the fashion pieces, the stem, the floor, the braço [first futtock] and the apostura [futtocks and naval timbers], and so that they may be made perfectly, they must be first outlined on paper (and thus all the other things) in this manner. One scale arranged and divided into rumos, goas and palmos de goa, and another into palmos de braça craveira (which have to be in the proportion already stated one to another), of convenient size, according to the size of the paper, on which the design is to be made, a straight line AB of 17 1/2 rumos, which are 105 palmos, may be set out, which will be the length of the keel; from which as we have said, all the parts of the nau have to be regulated; and therefore it is the first thing that is begun in this work; to lay down the post the line AC is raised at right angles from the point A, which will be 42 palmos because it has to be the size of 2/5 of the length of the keel: the fifth of 105 being 21 and therefore two fifths are 42. And on the said line AC at its last point C is raised another at right angles, CD, of 12 palmos, which will be the rake of the post; because it has to rake 2/7 of its height on the square, and 2/7 of 42 palmos are 12, each seventh being 6 palmos, and from the point D to the point A is drawn the line AD, which will be the post.

And because the stem has to rake the third part of the keel, the said line AB may be extended to the point E, so that BE may be one third of the keel, which will be 35 palmos. and from the point E the line EF is raised at right angles to the height of the said stem, which has to be the size of half of the keel, according to the rules given, it will be 52 1/2 palmos.

To lay down the stem one takes from this height a sixth part from F downwards, which will be FG, which are eight palmos. And then the remainder of GE is divided into nine equal parts of which four, which are 19 palmos and 1/3, are taken, EH, and from the centre E with radius EH is drawn the quadrant of the circle HJK which is divided in the middle by the point J, through which and through the points B, G, a circle will be drawn (looking for the centre of all three points, which will be M) whose arc is from the prow to the point G. And from there to the point L (which they call the capello [Cardinal's hat ?: the stemhead]) and [is where] the stem turns back on itself), it will be drawn with the same opening of the compass, changing the centre however, which may be N, and may be at the same height from the keel AB as is the point G from the point E. And in this way the keel AB, the post DA, the stem BJGL will be designed, and the heel of the stern will be the angle PAT [=DAB] which the post makes with the keel. And inside the lines of these pieces are laid down others, set off from them one palmo de goa, which will show the height of the said pieces, all of which this figure [Fig.1] represents.

To design the master floor, braço and apostura, with which the others are marked, it is necessary for the distance which there is from the point F to the point D in the last figure to be known, which they call between perpendiculars (eslora à eslora), and is 153 palmos. Also to this distance is added the third part of the transom, which is what the first counter has to rake, and are nine palmos, and thus it makes the whole sum 162 palmos. Of this one takes the third part (which as is said has to be the greatest breadth of the nau in the middle of the third deck), and will be 54 palmos, and of so much may be made a straight line AB, which is divided in the middle at the point C. From all these points A, B, C are raised the lines AD, CE, BG at right angles, and in these may be marked the heights of the hold and of the decks with the thickness of the timbers. And because the height of the said decks has to be one fifteenth of the keel, and the hold two, the deck will be seven palmos and the hold fourteen, and thus the height AE, BF fifteen palmos, fourteen for the hold and one for the thickness of the timber of the frame; EH, FJ of seven palmos and for the thickness of the timbers 2/3 palmos; HK, JL as much again, and KD, LG of 3 1/2 palmos (which is the height of half of the third deck where the greatest breadth of 54 palmos has to be), and 2/3 palmos more for the thickness of the timbers. And thus the whole height AD or BG will be 34 1/2 palmos. Then the breadth AB is divided into five equal parts in the points M, O, P, R, and taking one of these fifths such as AM with the compass, from points A, B as centres, the quadrants STM and VZR will be described, which are divided in the middle in the points T and Z. The parts MO, PR are divided again in the middle in the points N, Q, and the deck HJ may accordingly be made less than the greatest breadth DG one part of 27, into which the whole is divided which will be two palmos: and thus it will be 52 palmos. From which, from the point a which is the middle of that, 26 palmos are taken for both parts up to the points H, J, with which all the necessary points will be assigned and from which have to be described the master frame, braços and aposturas, in this manner. The centre of the circle which passes through the three points N, T, H, may be sought, which will be X, and from this the arc of the circle HTN will be described, and then the centre of the circle that passes through D, H, M may be sought, which will be Y. From that will be laid down the arc of the circle HD, with which alone will the curve DHTN be made. And in the same way, and with the same openings of the compass, from the centres b, c, will be described the arcs of circles GJ and JZQ, with which will be assigned the master floor, braços, and first and second aposturas up to the points D, G, where the middle of the third deck is, and the greatest breadth. Then one lays down from the same centres Y, X, b, c, other arcs of circles set off from DHTN and from GJZQ one palmo for the thickness of the timbers, and the straight line de, set off from the line NQ another palmo, and where this line cuts the arcs of the circles TN, ZQ, which will be in the points d, e, will be the mid-points (meyos), where the floor is joined with the braços, called côvados [the wrongheads]. From these points one takes for both sides 4 palmos up to the points i, f, h, g, and they are marked with lines at right angles, which will show the ends of the floor and of the braços, because fg is the floor, iTl one braço, hZn the other, whose ends l, n, of the upper part, as is seen in the figure [Fig.2], rest a little above the first deck, as much as the timber extends to. The first aposturas are lm, no, which also pass the second deck, and the second aposturas are mD, oG, which reach up to the greatest breadth of the Nau, and thus all the parts of this design are assigned; in which it is fitting that the corners N, Q, may be rounded, turning a curved line from the wrongheads d, e, to the beginnings of the braços i, h, as is represented in the figure, because the floor and the braços have to have this form.

The fashion pieces (revessados), which are called by another name pés mancos [lit.: without feet] will be designed in this manner [Fig.3]. The line AB may be raised of the size of the height of the sternpost, which as has been seen above has to be 42 palmos which are two thirds of the keel according to the rule of its proportion; and set off from that one palmo, another is raised, CD, which is the breadth of the said sternpost, and on that at right angles the transom may be set across, which as it may conform with the given rules has to have for size half of the greatest breadth; it will be 27 palmos, and of so much is the line EF made, taking 13 palmos and a half for both parts from the middle of the sternpost, and above this line may be raised another, GH, set off from it one palmo, which is the thickness of the said transom. Then the tuck (delgado da popa) may be marked on the sternpost, which has to have half of the rake of the stem, which will be 17 palmos and a half, and so much are taken from the points B, D to the points J, K. And because the fashion pieces have to rake from the points G, H to the points J, K it is necessary that the third points may be sought through which the circles that mark them have to pass, which will be done in this manner. Divide the distance AJ, CK in in the middle in the points L, M, and with the size AL, or CM the two squares ALNP, CMOR may be made for both parts of the sternpost, of which the sternpost and the transom may be two sides, and remark the corners N, O, which are the third points through which the circles that may mark the fashion pieces have to pass. And thus if the centre of the circle which passes through the three points E, N, J is sought, which will be S, and the centre of the circle which passes through the other three points F, O, K, which will be T, and from the said centres may be described the arcs of circles JNE, FOK, they will be the fashion pieces which it is intended to design, within which, set off one palmo from them, may be laid other arcs of circles, for the thickness of their timbers; with which the whole design will be made perfect.

From that the Architect will draw the necessary templates (formas - [52]) for the timber, for which, in a large room, or on a very flat and clean earth floor, he will do the same operations, tracing the said templates in the said manner, using a cord for a compass, because there are none that may make sizeable circles (as are required), and a rule of a rumo and of a goa, divided into palmos; which will serve him for a scale; and planks laid down on the floor in the places where the cord serving the office of compass has to mark; on them he will draw the said templates with chalk, or with red ochre (almagra). In which it may be noticed, that in that for the stem it is fitting that the corner that the said stem makes with the keel may also be marked, which is called the touch (couçe da proa), which is seen on the template ABC [Fig.4]; and it will be well that the heel (couçe da popa) which is the corner that the sternpost makes with the keel be drawn on two pieces of plank; because it is more secure than taken with a bevel, as the figure DEF shows [Fig.4]. For the master floor no more than half the template will be drawn, because turning it over the other half is marked, leaving on it however a further piece of plank from the middle for the other half, on which the graminho has to be drawn, as will be said below. The wronghead may be marked on this template, and the middle of the said floor as is seen in the figure GHJK [Fig.4], in which H is the middle and J is the wronghead, and GH is what is left beyond the half.

For the braços [first futtocks], only one is designed, because turning it over both are marked by its template; and on it have to be marked the wronghead and the tooth of the first deck as the figure LM, NO [Fig.5] shows, in which N is the wronghead and M the tooth (dente - [53]); and in the same way is made the first and second aposturas of a size that each one of them reaches two teeth, from the first and second deck, and from the second and third deck; because they are the means whereby the first and second aposturas are joined, and the first apostura with the braço. And thus the first apostura will be PR, and the second ST, and with these the other two for the other part are formed, turning them over, as is done with the floor and with the braços. Only one of the fashion pieces is drawn out also, because the same turned over makes the other; and on the end which is to be fastened on the sternpost, is left a piece of timber, called mão [lit.: hand], which is seen in the figure VX [Fig.5]. And in this way will the principal and necessary templates be made; which the architect may keep, to order the marking by them of the sticks that he has to have.

And because the planks on which the templates are drawn do not have the whole breadth which the timber requires (which as we will see below has to be one palmo de goa), he may lay on them the trace of the outside, and another for the part within, as much as can be marked on them excepting that which is lacking to fill the size of the palmo: it will be made up for when marking with the said templates (as we will say below).

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The templates made, the Architect will hand them to the Master of the Carpenters, so that he may by them mark the timbers, wrought on both faces of their thickness, and chosen for what each one can serve. The templates are placed on the said faces, and with a thin stick of a palmo in length and a finger in width, called esgaravote, soaked in the red ochre ink pot, they will run along the outside part of the template, identifying and marking it (what they call to galivar) with the ochre from the said esgaravote. And because the templates do not have the whole breadth that is required for the inner part, which is as we said one palmo, a plank called enxova [Fig.6] may overcome this lack, which is as seen in the present figure ABC, in which the breadth that is lacking in the templates, to make up the palmo, is AB: and at B is set a point, which soaked in ochre, and running with the corner A by the inner part of the template, the point B marking the breadth that the timber ought to have. And when on the faces of the said timbers there may be wany edge [falta = lack], (which often happens) which the enxova does not reach, nor can the esgaravote mark with certainty, a small stick may be used, with four faces, ending in a point, called in this Art chincho, hung along the template, its point marking the wany edge of the timber; guided through which points the esgaravote marks the shape (forma) perfectly; and what on each one particularly ought to be watched for, we will say when dealing with them.

And the Master beginning the building of his nau, the space in the Ribeira that the keel has to occupy prepared and made very flat; and sloping to the sea, he may arrange on it some supports (assentos) on which the keel has to be placed, which are called atacadas [Fig.7] [54], which are made of baulks of four and of six palmos in length, and one palmo square; worked on all four faces; so that thay sit well, and with equality on each other; these baulks may be crossed over on each other, as is seen in the present figure, and because the ground is never so equal that it has no lumpiness (calombo), he may place below the first baulks some transverse planks, which they call soleiras [sills], with which the keel blocks will be finished, which are placed at a convenient distance from each other, and ordinarily made four baulks high, which has to serve for the bow; and because the ground has to be sloping, the place for the stern becomes lower than that at the atacada on which the stern ought to be, that will be made higher, by the whole amount that the site is lower and sloping, because these two keel blocks at the bow and at the stern have to be level; and for that two nails are fixed in the heads of these, and if a cord of the length of the keel crosses these, by which these two keel blocks may be levelled, which is not so certain, as if it will be levelled with a large ruler of 15 or 20 palmos, and since all the other keel blocks that are between these will have to be on the same level as these. However they descend a little towards the middle, so that the keel may be curved so much. Because as after the timbers may be drawn up on it and make it rise up in the middle, with this small adjustment that they give it, it stays in its place, and conveniently finished forms the Nau.

On these keel blocks, as we have said, the keel has to sit, which as it has to be 17 rumos and a half, which are 105 palmos, it cannot therefore be of one whole baulk (pao), because one of such size cannot be found, and in any case because the heel and touch have to be integral, and a straight baulk of such size being found, it cannot have the curves (voltas) that are required for the said heel and touch. And besides all these causes even when a baulk will be found, with all the conditions from which the keel and curves could be made, it may not be fitting [to do so] other than from pieces, because, like the timbers they might cut from it, it would crack, if it were to be whole; and [made] from pieces it gives of itself as much as is necessary, and does not break. These pieces then may be of greater size than the baulks extend to; sound, and without winding, and they may be worked very well for a palmo in breadth, and everthing more than a palmo in height that they will be able to get, because the rest of the palmo serves for a housing (encaxe) that is carved in the said keel, called the rabbet (alifriz), where the first plank of the skin of the nau is housed, which is called the garboard (risbordo), and the greater and higher this rabbet can be, the better; and thus there has to be for it below one palmo, which corresponds to the one palmo of the breadth of the keel, and any more that the baulk may have has to be the rabbet. And it is worked in the manner that is seen in this figure [Fig.8], also taking from it the corners from the lower part. And as the keel cannot be entire, and has to be in pieces, these are adjusted one with another with scarfs (as the following figure shows [Fig.8A]) and are fastened with bolts (pregos - [55]) that go through the whole breadth of the timber and they rivet (rivetão) the other part, on some iron washers, which method of fastening is called anielados, and in this way the whole keel will be made and will be joined with the said scarfs.

The heel, which is the corner that the sternpost makes with the keel, is made from one slab (pao), that may have its shape, and which may be convenient for that; and thus with diligence, it may be sought and may be set aside, because it is a very principal part and of great importance for the ship. This slab is worked very well on both the faces, of the same breadth as the keel, and on both faces the corner ABC is marked, from the template for the heel; so that the piece of the keel AB, and that of the sternpost BC, in which piece of the keel the rabbet is continued to one palmo before the corner B. And because the sternpost also has to have the rabbet, it may be made in the piece BC, not reaching to B [by] two palmos however, the rabbet crossing from one part to the other in a straight line, as is seen in the figure [Fig.9]. And the more timber there may be, and the greater the rabbet next to the corner B, so much the better will the slab be. And all of this has to be left as the said figure shows, in which the manner of the scarf DE is also seen, which has to be made in the piece for the sternpost, where the other has to come to join it. Besides all these particulars noted, it is necessary that there may be left on this piece, from the corner B, three or four palmos high and as much in length, as is the piece HJG, which is worked as the figure shows it, and is called the patilha [skeg - 56], on which the rudder rests.

The pieces for the stem are marked by its template, for which they have first to be worked on both faces of their breadth, which has to be as much as that of the keel, outside the rabbet, which also has to continue for the stem as for the keel, and it also has to conform with that in its thickness, on these faces thus worked the stem is marked, in pieces, because there is no slab of the size necessary for its making. And these pieces may be joined with scarfs, in the same way as those of the keel, and may be fastened with the same riveted bolts, as the following figure shows [Fig.10, upper]. And because it is necessary for the strength of this building that the forefoot of the said stem, or of the prow may be entire from one piece only, he may seek a slab, suitable for its making, and on it in the same way is marked the said touch, and it may be worked as the keel is made, and the stem, and is seen in this figure [Fig.10, lower], which forefoot may be joined with the keel, and with the stem, with two scarfs; like the other slabs of these pieces.

Chapter:

On the heel the sternpost is continued, in pieces (if it cannot be entire), which may be joined with scarfs like that with which the said sternpost is joined with the heel, and great care must be taken that it does not rake (abra) more nor less than 12 palmos from the square, as was said above. It is worked up to where the run (delgado) of the Nau is finished, in the manner that its other piece that joins with the keel goes, and forms the heel, which is squared, of one palmo on the face, with its rabbet on the inner part, as the letters AB, FE show it in its figure. After the piece on which the fashion pieces come to be joined, and where the run finishes, it may be left broader, almost a palmo and a half, and more if the baulk allows it, and nothing is taken from its thickness, which space is called chumaceira and is BC, EG. From this chumaceira upwards, on the outer side, a large rabbet is made on both sides, as is seen in the figure [Fig.11] marked with the letters CD, in which they house, and on which they fasten some timbers which they call calimas. And on the inner part it is worked on the corner, with a ridge (espigao), as GH shows, on which they house some timbers crossing this sternpost called porcas. On it, at right angles as we have said, goes the transom, of 27 palmos, straight, and worked square, and in the middle of it the sternpost is fitted with a dovetail mortise (rabo de minhoto); and so that this mortise in the transom may be made with strength, more timber is left on it on the inner part and the outer face has to be a continuation of the great rabbet of the sternpost, for the planking of the calimas to cover everything equally, which is seen in this figure [Fig.12] where AB is the piece of the transom, DC the mortise in the middle into which the sternpost enters, EF the extra timber for its breadth, for the strength of the said mortise, LGH the end of the sternpost, KJ the rabo de minhoto, which enters the mortise DC of the transom, in such a way that its outer face AB may align with GH, which the piece of transom already housed on the sternpost and marked with cross-hatching shows well.

On the transom is set up a grade [grid]; for which lines AB, CD, of 7 palmos, are raised at right angles at its ends A, C, as the following figure [Fig.13] represents it: because it has to be one fifteenth of the keel or equal to the height of the decks as was said above, and from the points B, D inwards may be gathered a palmo each side, from which points E, F to the extremities of the transom A, C may be drawn straight lines EA, FC; according to which the baulks of the said grade have to go, narrowed the said two palmos more than the transom itself. However it is fitting that the baulk for this, although it may be the necessary size for 27 palmos, may be less, and that the ends may be added (which is called in this practice emmendar) with some knees (curvas) scarfed on it; which are marked in the figure with the letters AGH, CJK. Because as the ends of the said transom have to turn upwards for the grade, and the straight baulk of which it is made cannot have this shape these knees which do have it are put on the transom, and with these the grade is much stronger. And because pieces so formed may not be found easily for the said knees either, as may be required, they may also be extended with the ends of other pieces; which are EH, FJ, scarfed as the said figure [Fig.13] shows.

From end to end of these knees a baulk of pinho manso is crossed, called barra, which is LM; a little arched, set off from the transom four palmos in the middle and in the ends three, which barra is a palmo de vara square, and fastens on the ends of the knees on the outer part and from this barra to the transom are crossed other straight baulks of the same breadth, and thickness, called barrotes, of which two which are NO, PQ, make a space in the middle of the said grade which they call almeida where the tiller of the rudder may come out, and from that, to the ends of the transom another three barrotes (which are eight in all) are placed on both sides, with which the grade AMLC is finished, and they house (emmocar) and fasten the said barrotes on the transom and on the outer part of the barra, just as on the ends of the knees.

The fashion pieces, marked by their template, are worked on the outer face to a palmo in breadth, and on the inner face greater breadth is left, so that this face corresponds to the breadth of the nau, which from the fashion pieces forward becomes greater, towards the position of the master frame. And the length [lit.: height] is the most that it can be, so that the slab may have [it] at its ends, on which some lugs (orelhas [lit.: ears]) are made, which they fasten on the transom and on the sternpost. These fashion pieces are RS, TV in the ajoining figure, which also, for lack of size, and shape of the slabs from which they are made, may be extended with scarfs, as is seen in the said figure. And they fasten on the ends of the transom and on the chumaceira of the sternpost, by the inner part, for which they leave on its length the lugs Z, X (because they make a mortise in neither the transom nor the sternpost) which are those that are fastened on the said parts, and with such care, that the outer faces of the said fashion frames at their upper ends R, T may align with the face of the transom, and the faces of the lower ends S, V may align with the face of the great rabbet of the sternpost.

For greater security and strength of this part of the nau some baulks of a palmo in height, called porcas, are laid across on the sternpost, and from one fashion piece to the other; which are at right angles on the sternpost like the transom and connect the said sternpost with the fashion pieces; and lugs are left on their ends which they fasten on the fashion pieces, and in the middle a mortise (encaixo) is made for it, with which it houses (encaixa) on the sternpost, which on its inner part there, as we said, is worked with a ridge, and in the same way they have to have mortises for the porcas, and because these mortises entering into the piece would weaken [lit.: decapitate] it, greater thickness is left it for that part, as is done at the transom for the mortise of the sternpost [see Figs.12, 13] the same thickness is left on the ends for the lugs. These porcas show the numbers 1,2/ 3,4/ 5,6 in the last figure, which because they do not reach are extended with other pieces with scarfs for the shape, which the same figure shows; and all the space which there is in the transom up to the ends V, S of the fashion pieces is filled with these porcas, leaving as much room as space; and close to the same points V, S of the fashion pieces that space, which is called porquete, is made solid for greater strength with two or three porcas, which are 7,8/ 9,10, and thus the more there may be, the better; and all are housed (emmocadas) in such manner that their outer faces align with the faces of the fashion pieces and with that of the great rabbet of the sternpost, so that the planking comes to cover everything equally, and in its surface is left only the space of the sternpost that is between its rabbets, marked with the numbers 11, 12, from where the planking begins to cover, as will be said in its place. The last figure shows all of which with perfection, and in it are seen all the details necessary for this construction.

HOW THE GRAMINHO IS MADE, AND THE FRAMES OF ACCOUNT ARE MARKED FROM IT. Chapter:

The keel, stem and grade set up, the master floor timber and others of account are placed, which in the construction of this nau have to be ten, five on each side of the master frame, the last of which are called almogamas, and on them are overlapped (embraçados) the braços [first futtocks], and on these the aposturas [futtucks and naval timbers], whose construction depends on the design of the master frame, that was taught in the Chapter. And from that braços and aposturas will be made in the same design, and these have to be marked with the templates that will be drawn from that. For which it is more fitting that a certain measure which is called graminho be ordained, with which we have to guide ourselves in this design, the construction of which is as follows [Fig.14]. A plank ABCD may be taken, of the breadth of the keel exactly, which is AB, one palmo, or one and a half in length as they may wish, and it may be worked at right angles in the corners A, B, and the said breadth AB is divided in the middle with the line EF. Then from A and B downwards are taken 2 and a half dedos de vara, AK, BJ, and a line KJ may be crossed at right angles, from which downwards may be taken 5 dedos, which is double, and the line HL may be crossed at right angles. With centre H and radius HK of the said 5 dedos a quadrant of a circle HGK may be made, which is divided into as many parts as there have to be frames of account that have to be on one or the other side of the master frame, and because in these naus these frames have to be 5 as has been said, the said equal parts into which the quadrant GK has to be divided will be five, marked with the points 2, 3, 4, 5, from which points lines equidistant to the lines KJ, HL are drawn out, which the more they may depart from the line KJ the more they will be extended, and the more they may be set off from that the broader they will be, which is seen in this present figure. The plank which is thus drawn out in this manner is kept, because with it and with the template of the master frame, the master has to be marked, and everything [else] most necessary.

And as for the master designed by the method that was taught in the chapter, and its template MNOR drawn out [Fig.15], which as was said above is one half, and the wronghead (côvado) [the surmark] OP marked on it, and the middle of the said floor MS on both its faces. At its wronghead may be marked also on both its faces the five points of the graminho, which comprise the space ST, which will be done either by tranferring the said points with a compass, from the graminho to the floor, or on the point T which is five dedos, making a quadrant, and dividing in five parts; and from these drawing straight lines, equidistant to the line SM as may be done for the making of the graminho, which will be the same thing. Which marked on the template, and the [rising ?] graminho arranged, the said template MNOR may be placed on the slab which has to be marked with it and the plank of the graminho may be offered up to that, so that the line EF may align with the line MS of the middle of the floor and the line BA of the graminho may be ajusted with the line VST, and without anything being moved from this posture: the points JK of the graminho may be marked on the timber, to mark the master frame, which done the graminho ABF may be drawn. And the whole half-floor may be marked, MNOR for the inner part, and ZPX at the most for the outer part, and the points OP of the wronghead, and lifting the template, it may be put on the point marked K, and on the point X, sloping upwards so that everything may be rounded [smoothly overlapped], and the template placed thus on the two points, the outline XYK may be marked, as is seen in the figure, done with stippling [Fig.15], which is all that the master floor rises [the deadrise - 57]. Then from the point K to the point J, a straight line should be drawn, which is the space called astilha that sits on the keel; and turning the half floor [template] over to the other side, in the same way, the other half floor may be marked, with which everything will be completely marked; then the straight line MS, the middle of the floor, may be marked with an escopro, and two others that terminate the astilha, set off from MS half a palmo each side, which make the breadth of the keel, and thus with the same escopro the straight line OP of the wronghead may be marked too, so that the floor worked by these outlines which will be laid down in this way, and these lines marked, may be perfect.

The other floors of account, which as we have said are ten, five each side of the master, for the outline of which the five points on the graminho were made, are marked in the same way as the master, changing the graminho, and putting its line EF on the end of the floor that it is wished to mark, which will be the middle of the said floor, which will be marked with the escopro, with a straight line. And thus further, taking on the said graminho the points for the same floor, and marked on the timber, marking the floor by them. From which it may follow, that as much as one floor is less than another, so much more it rises, on the astilha. Which we will see in the following figure [Fig.16], of the last floor, which is that of the almogama, in which is made an example of this outline. Because the line EF of the graminho will be placed on the last point GT, marked on the template of the floor, this being the last floor (which if it were the third, the said line would be placed on the third point), and then the last points of the graminho H, L which belong to the same last floors (which are the almogamas) will be marked on the timber, MNOR for the part within, and ZPX for the outer part up to the point X, from which point to the point H it will be marked, with the same template, raising it, and placed in a rounding manner it may come to seek the said two points X, H. And the same is done for the other side; and its astilha may be made marked with a straight line that may cross from the point H to the point L. The places for the wrongheads OP may also be marked, and they may be marked with the escopro as is done in the master. And at each floor with the same escopro its number may be marked on it, first, second or third, etc, whatever it may be, so that it may be known where it has to be set, and what its place is.

Chapter:

The braços [first futtocks] for these frames have to be marked and worked with the template for the braço that we draw above; and thus all the rest that come to be joined (embraçados [=abraçados]) on the others. A warning is necessary however; that on the template of the braço from the line OP of the wronghead [the surmark] upwards, may be marked, as on the template of the floor, the points of the graminho PS [Fig.17], for by them the wrongheads of the five braços of the five frames of account may be marked, which go from the master frame forward only and not those for the stern, because these have to be marked and worked from the template of the braço without any adjustment, which is done so that the nau opens out from the master frame forward more than it does aft. And thus the wrongheads of the braços of the first frame will be marked by the first point of the graminho, marked on this template. The wrongheads of the braços of the second frame will be marked by the second points of the graminho, and thus the rest, so that the wrongheads of the braços of the last frame of the fore almogama will be marked by the line TS, which is that of the last point of the graminho.

The aposturas [futtocks and naval timbers] will be marked and worked by the template that we draw in the chapter above; the first by the first template, and the second by the second. The first aposturas serve for the first aposturajem, which goes at the first deck, and the second for the second aposturajem which serves at the second deck, and forty aposturas are worked from one or another of the said templates, and those necessary besides may be made from the ribbands, as we will say in its place.

These timbers worked, as is said, all the eleven floors of account are joined with their braços on the ground, and the first aposturas are adjusted on these [Fig.18], for which attention has to be paid to the wrongheads marked on the floors and on the braços, because these have to be joined with great care, and have to come one on another very precisely, and account has to be taken only of these lines of the wrongheads [the surmarks] in the joining together of the floors with the braços, and in some, and in others, some mortises are made, with which they are adjusted. And the floor timber thus laid down on the ground, on one side and on the other its braços are placed on it, wronghead to wronghead. And to see whether the braços are upright and open what is fitting, a cord AB may be drawn from the middle of the floor A at right angles to the line CD of the said floor, and on this line, 14 palmos are taken from A to B which is the height of the hold and from B another cord BE may be crossed at right angles on the one side, and another BF for the other and if these cords are equal and of the size that is fitting for the opening of the nau in that part (which for the master frame that we exemplify in the following figure is of 24 palmos) the braços will be in their place and may be fastened. And when not, the error that they will have, either too much or too little open, is corrected, and corrected they may be fastened. On the master floor four braços are placed on the ground, two on either side (because when they are positioned, the said floor in its place, and they are putting the other floors on one side and the other the braços remain on their outer side, so that they can be fastened with ease). And all the space from the lower end of one braço to the end of the other, is filled with other timbers of the same thickness and height, which are called entremichas; so that the master floor becomes accompanied on one side and on the other by these timbers, for its strength. Between these two braços one of the first aposturas is placed and thus the rest are made conformable with the braços, for which the dentes [teeth] serve [Figs.17,18], which are marked on them and on the aposturas as are the wrongheads on the floors, all of which this figure [Fig.18] represents; in which GAH is the master floor, CJ one braço and DK the other, whose wrongheads where they are adjusted are L and M. The first aposturas are FO, EN, adjusted at the teeth F, E. The space CD which is from the end of one braço to the end of the other is filled with a timber that matches the floor, which is the entremicha, as was said above. And this is only on one face of the master floor, and two other braços have to be put on the other that may come from F to L, and from E to M on the ends of the aposturas and of the floor, and the space that the lower ends of the said braços will enclose has also to be filled with another entremicha, with which, all these pieces adjusted, they will make everything joined together. And the others will be done in the same way as was exemplified for the master frame.

All the timber worked for these eleven floors of account, for the braços and aposturas, these pieces joined together and fastened, they are put in their place, which is on the keel, on which all the floors are set with their astilhas, and to adjust the place of the others it is fitting to know first that of the master, because from that the place of the others is regulated; according then to the rules given the position of the master frame is at the third of the keel counted from the forefoot, by which, if we shall take 35 palmos, which is one third of the 105 palmos that is the whole of the keel, from the said forefoot towards the stern, the end of the 35 palmos will be the place for the middle of the master floor; and marked thus, we will place it on it, setting its astilha with the keel, and its middle line with the middle of the keel, with which it will be at right angles, and set in this way the necessary props will be placed on it so that it is not moved from the position in which it is put, nor do its braços open more with the weight of the timbers than that which is fitting; and because it is very important for the said floor to be at right angles, a cord placed on one end of the keel and extended to the wrongheads of the floors may be used to such effect, that the distance taken with the cord from these to the given end of the keel being the same, it will be good, and the floor and braços at right angles, and the distance from the one side being greater than the other in such case the error may be emended, turning the frame to the side that is fitting until the said distance may be equal. The cord serves here for a compass, and the end of the keel for the centre of a circle, the said wrongheads being equally distant from which (or any other points equally set off from the middle of the floor), the said piece will necessarily be set at right angles on the keel. And this manner of squaring, the officials call to manegar [horning].

The master frame (which in the following figure [Fig.20] may be marked with the letters NC) set with its entremichas on one side and the other, attached with those of both sides, another two frames [58], which are the first of the five of account may be set; and then the rest are to be placed, leaving as much space between one and another as is the breadth of each of the said floors, which as is said is one palmo; and all are squared; and fastened on the keel, and their props are put on them, so that they may always be in their position, and open what may be necessary, and no more. And of these frames the last fore and aft, which are the fifth frames from the master on both sides, are called almogamas, one for the bow which is J, and one for the stern, which is H.

To fill the rest of the space of the keel with frames, a wooden wale (a half palmo wide and four fingers thick, worked square on all its four faces, which is called an armadoura [ribband]) is placed from the tuck of the stern (delgado de popa) which is the point D to the gripe (delgado de proa), which is the point E (which as is said in the general rules is half of the tuck) and therefore in this nau will be 8 and 3/4 palmos) and which may pass through all the wrongheads of the floors of account, which are set down, their line of intersections being situated on the upper face of the ribband, as is seen in the following figure [Fig.20], in which the said ribband is DACBE. From which, and from another that is placed on the other side, through the same places, all the rest of the space of the keel may be filled with frames called enchimentos. Of which some are open through being broad, and similar to the floors, and others closed, by becoming narrow and forming the entry and run (delgados) of the nau.

And to know where some, or others, have to begin, it may be explained that from the fore almogama J to the forefoot M is divided into three thirds, of which two are taken, from the said almogama to the forefoot, which are JN, and these have to be filled with open enchimentos [rising timbers], and in the other space from the point Z [sic: R or N ?] to the point E, the end of the ribband, closed enchimentos [crook timbers] have to go. For the stern, the space of the keel from the almogama H to the touch O is divided into three parts, of which one is taken from the said almogama, which may be HK, and this part is occupied by open enchimentos. Then the remainder of the keel KO may be divided into another three parts, and the third KP is filled with closed enchimentos. And the rest that remain have to be filled with picas [crook and half timbers - 59], which are straight timbers that form the run, which is no broader than the breadth of the said picas, which is equal to that of the keel.

The height of these picas and of all the enchimentos shows in the following outline of the ribband DABE, as also the height of the floors of account shows, passing through their wrongheads, and thus the height of the master floor is NC, and of the two almogamas is JS, HT and in this manner the height of all the pieces is what is seen in the figure between the said ribband and the keel, taken from their upper faces: because this ribband represents the first plan of the nau, which remains at the same height from the keel as the said ribband, and makes the same form (forma) that it shows. From which the Architect will find in this outline with the compass the height that these enchimentos and picas ought to have, and according to that he will order them to work. And thus for example, the height of the pica that ought to be placed at the point R will be RV, which are 12 palmos, and the timber has to be worked for so much height, which will have to serve for the pica for the said place.

But because the height of this pica is great, and in the others that come towards the stern much greater, and being too long these timbers become weak: to be less and thus also for the strength of the keel, of the post and of the stem, another piece that is called coral (stemson/sternson) is laid down above these three pieces, which is an almost square baulk, however its lower face has to be of the size as the upper face of the keel, and the inner faces of the post and stem on which it sits: and its upper face has to be a little broader, as the present figure [Fig.19] shows, so that with its greater upper breadth it goes to form the breadth of the nau. This sternson comes from the chumaceira of the sternpost, and curves towards the keel, to the first closed enchimento forward of the last pica, and the forward part begins in the middle of the space between the almogama J and the forefoot M, and continues throughout the stem above, as is seen in the following figure [none survives with this detail]. And the two scarfs have to be shifted in position from the scarfs of the keel, the post and stem, so that in this way one and the other may become stronger; and thus if in the said ends where this deadwood (coral) finishes, there is some scarf in the keel, it is fitting that it may pass further, so that it may strengthen and secure it, which matters little, that in this respect it may pass the two ends marked.

The picas are less high by the whole thickness of this deadwood, which is a palmo and a half, more or less, and they are mortised [? emmechadas] and spiked (pregadas) into it. And since there has to be from one to the other the same distance as that of the enchimentos and the floors, which is as much room as space, withal, the empty space is made solid, and fills with other timbers, because everything is necessary for the strength of this place of the run of the nau, and which they call regel [rangel]. And because the post does not go upright on the keel, but inclined outwards there have to be placed these picas with another similar inclination, as the pica RV comes, for which they thus fill its place in proper order. And the braços at the stem, which may be joined onto the closed enchimentos forward, have to have the same inclination.

The heights of the enchimentos and picas known by means of the ribband, which was laid down by the entry and run of the nau and by the wrongheads of the floors of account, it is necessary that the breadths of the said enchimentos may be known from wronghead to wronghead, so that the timbers that have to serve may be chosen from that. To this end, it is fitting that a plan may be drawn of what these two ribbands open, in this way [Fig.20]. The straight line AB may be laid down, of the length of the ribband DE, to which line two others may be be laid down on it on one side and the other, which may take the breadth of the keel, which is one palmo. The place of the master frame may be marked on it, and of the almogamas, the forefoot, the place where the closed enchimentos begin aft and the picas, for which perpendicular lines at right angles are raised from the said places in the first figure: so that where these may cut the line AB of this second figure they may be marked there: as lines raised from the place of the master frame N and from the almogamas H, J cut the line AB in the points C, F, J, and thus the point C will be the place of the master frame, F of the aft almogama, and J of the fore almogama, and a line raised at right angles in the same way from the forefoot M will mark the said forefoot in the line AB in the point. And other lines raised from the points K, P where the closed enchimentos and the picas begin aftwards will show the said points in the line AB, which will be M, T. These points marked, one takes from that which was done in the chapter for the master frame the distance that is half of that to the wronghead that in the said figure was Ce, or Cd, and that same may be put in this figure from the point C, the place of the master frame, for both sides, which are CD, CE, the ends D, E marked at the said distance. Then for the points F, J, the places of the almogamas, the breadth of the said almogamas is taken for both sides, from its middle to its wrongheads, which is less than that of the master frame by the whole size of the graminho, which is five fingers on each side: and this said breadth may be marked with the points G, H, for the aft almogama and with the points K, L for the fore almogama. Any distance from these of K, L, or G, H is divided into three parts of which one may be taken, and from the point P, the place of the forefoot, it may be placed for both sides, and its ends may be marked with the points R, S. The breadth of one almogama is further divided into four parts, of which one may be placed from the point M (which is the place where the closed enchimentos begin) for both sides, marking the ends of the said distance with the points N, O. Through which, and through all the others that will be marked by this arrangement (ordem), the ribbands have to pass, and thus if two circles shall be laid down from the point T to the point B, through the points N, G, D, K, R on the one side and through the points O, H, E, L, S on the other, they will show perfectly the plan of the ribbands, because the said lines (rodas) TNGDKRB, TOHELSB are curves; and from the point T to the point A they will go straight, being the place of the picas, and of the run of the nau. And in this way, and with these two lines, the Architect will see the height that the floors, enchimentos and picas have to have, which is shown in the first figure [between] the ribband DABE and the keel ONM; and the breadth that is necessary for them at the said pieces, which the plan of the ribbands from the following figure shows. And thus for example; if in the point a an enchimento has to be placed, and we wish to know its height and breadth, a line at right angles to the keel may be raised from the said point, which may take in both the figures that the distance ab, which is in the first figure between the face of the keel and that of the ribband is the height of the enchimento that has to be placed in the said point, which is taken from the scale: 2 and 1/2 palmos, and of so much will the height of the enchimento have. And in the second figure the distance de, or dc between the line of the middle, AB and the ribbands, is that which the said enchimento ought to have to its wronghead, which from the scale is 11 palmos, and so much the half breadth of the said enchimento has to have, and the whole from wronghead to wronghead has to be 22 palmos, taken in a straight line.

The invention of this plan of the ribbands is new [60], and of importance to know the breadth of the enchimentos and floors. And up to now that was used to be done by eye, and a little more or less; which with this plan will not be able to vary. And also there used to be used two graminhos, one for the stern and another for the bow, for the making of which half of the master floor that there is from the middle of that to the wronghead, was divided into five parts; of which two were taken, and these two fifths were divided with diminution into fifteen parts for fifteen floors: which may conform with these points becoming less [shorter], the further they departed from the master frame. And for the height that each one of them had to have a graminho was made for the floors of the stern, of height 3 and 1/2 palmos de goa excepting the foot which is of one polegada [?]; in which with another similar diminution another fifteen points were marked; and for the bow another graminho of two palmos de vara is arranged, with the same count, and diminution. And thus by this line 33 floor timbers were worked in the flat floor,: ss [sic: that is ?] the master and two more, one on each of its sides that may be equal to the master itself, and fifteen for the stern, and another so many for the bow; of which the last are those which they call almogamas; which in accordance with this line comes to have at the stern 3 and 1/2 palmos height, and at the bow, two; and besides this from the sixth frame fore and aft they overlap with a measure that they call saltarelha, which is made dividing the account of the frame into six parts and taking one of these for this saltarelha, in which are placed, and they mark with diminution 9 points, as in the graminhos, so that as the template (forma) narrows below, because on the ends of the floors the braços are placed as much outside.

However all this is useless and this work is unnecessary, because this our last design of the ribband gives the heights of all the floors, and enchimentos, with so little work, as is to take it with the compass [61], in any part in which it may be wished to set and is always equal to the same height known by way of the graminhos; and the saltarelha may be avoided with the points of our graminho marked on the braço because they make the same effect, and with greater ease.

The enchimentos, whose heights and breadths the last outlines show, set in place, the futtocks are joined onto them, and onto the picas, as the others come onto the floors of account; and so that it may be known how much they have to open, there has to be laid down another ribband above the first, which passes two palmos below the teeth of the futtocks of the frames of account; and that is set off from the first ribband by an equal distance; and in all the parts as is seen in the same last figure, in which this ribband was marked with the letters V, X, Z, Y. But because from the points X, Z aft, and forward, this ribband can be more or less open than is fitting, some means is necessary with which that may remain in its place, and this will be the plan of the first deck, which will be made in this manner:

(the manuscript ends abruptly here)